hyperactor/

value_mesh.rs

/*
 * Copyright (c) Meta Platforms, Inc. and affiliates.
 * All rights reserved.
 *
 * This source code is licensed under the BSD-style license found in the
 * LICENSE file in the root directory of this source tree.
 */

//! ## Value mesh invariants (VM-*)
//!
//! - **VM-1 (completeness):** Every rank in `region` has exactly one
//!   value. Iteration and indexing follow the region's linearization.

use std::cmp::Ordering;
use std::collections::HashMap;
use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
use std::hash::Hash;
use std::marker::PhantomData;
use std::mem;
use std::mem::MaybeUninit;
use std::ops::Range;
use std::ptr;
use std::ptr::NonNull;

use futures::Future;
use ndslice::Slice;
use ndslice::extent;
use ndslice::view;
use ndslice::view::Ranked;
use ndslice::view::Region;
use serde::Deserialize;
use serde::Serialize;
use typeuri::Named;

use crate::accum::Accumulator;
use crate::accum::CommReducer;
use crate::accum::ReducerSpec;

/// Run-length encoding helpers used by [`ValueMesh`] and [`ValueOverlay`].
pub mod rle;
mod value_overlay;
pub use value_overlay::BuildError;
pub use value_overlay::ValueOverlay;

/// Errors that occur while constructing a [`ValueMesh`].
#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, thiserror::Error)]
pub enum ValueMeshError {
    /// The number of supplied values did not match the region's rank count.
    #[error("invalid value mesh: expected {expected} ranks, but contains {actual} ranks")]
    InvalidRankCardinality {
        /// Required number of rank values for the target region.
        expected: usize,
        /// Actual number of rank values provided by the caller.
        actual: usize,
    },
}

impl From<view::InvalidCardinality> for ValueMeshError {
    fn from(value: view::InvalidCardinality) -> Self {
        Self::InvalidRankCardinality {
            expected: value.expected,
            actual: value.actual,
        }
    }
}

/// A mesh of values, one per rank in `region`.
///
/// The internal representation (`rep`) may be dense or compressed,
/// but externally the mesh always behaves as a complete mapping from
/// rank index → value.
///
/// See VM-1 in module doc.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize)] // only if T implements
pub struct ValueMesh<T> {
    /// The logical multidimensional domain of the mesh.
    ///
    /// Determines the number of ranks (`region.num_ranks()`) and the
    /// order in which they are traversed.
    region: Region,

    /// The underlying storage representation.
    ///
    /// - `Rep::Dense` stores a `Vec<T>` with one value per rank.
    /// - `Rep::Compressed` stores a run-length encoded table of
    ///   unique values plus `(Range<usize>, u32)` pairs describing
    ///   contiguous runs of identical values.
    ///
    /// The representation is an internal optimization detail; all
    /// public APIs (e.g. `values()`, `get()`, slicing) behave as if
    /// the mesh were dense.
    rep: Rep<T>,
}

/// A single run-length–encoded (RLE) segment within a [`ValueMesh`].
///
/// Each `Run` represents a contiguous range of ranks `[start, end)`
/// that all share the same value, referenced indirectly via a table
/// index `id`. This allows compact storage of large regions with
/// repeated values.
///
/// Runs are serialized in a stable, portable format using `u64` for
/// range bounds (`start`, `end`) to avoid platform‐dependent `usize`
/// encoding differences.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize)]
struct Run {
    /// Inclusive start of the contiguous range of ranks (0-based).
    start: u64,
    /// Exclusive end of the contiguous range of ranks (0-based).
    end: u64,
    /// Index into the value table for this run's shared value.
    id: u32,
}

impl Run {
    /// Creates a new `Run` covering ranks `[start, end)` that all
    /// share the same table entry `id`.
    ///
    /// Converts `usize` bounds to `u64` for stable serialization.
    fn new(start: usize, end: usize, id: u32) -> Self {
        Self {
            start: start as u64,
            end: end as u64,
            id,
        }
    }
}

impl TryFrom<Run> for (Range<usize>, u32) {
    type Error = &'static str;

    /// Converts a serialized [`Run`] back into its in-memory form
    /// `(Range<usize>, u32)`.
    ///
    /// Performs checked conversion of the 64-bit wire fields back
    /// into `usize` indices, returning an error if either bound
    /// exceeds the platform's addressable range. This ensures safe
    /// round-tripping between the serialized wire format and native
    /// representation.
    #[allow(clippy::result_large_err)]
    fn try_from(r: Run) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        let start = usize::try_from(r.start).map_err(|_| "run.start too large")?;
        let end = usize::try_from(r.end).map_err(|_| "run.end too large")?;
        Ok((start..end, r.id))
    }
}

/// Internal storage representation for a [`ValueMesh`].
///
/// This enum abstracts how the per-rank values are stored.
/// Externally, both variants behave identically — the difference is
/// purely in memory layout and access strategy.
///
/// - [`Rep::Dense`] stores one value per rank, directly.
/// - [`Rep::Compressed`] stores a compact run-length-encoded form,
///   reusing identical values across contiguous ranks.
///
/// Users of [`ValueMesh`] normally never interact with `Rep`
/// directly; all iteration and slicing APIs present a dense logical
/// view.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize)] // only if T implements
enum Rep<T> {
    /// Fully expanded representation: one element per rank.
    ///
    /// The length of `values` is always equal to
    /// `region.num_ranks()`. This form is simple and fast for
    /// iteration and mutation but uses more memory when large runs of
    /// repeated values are present.
    Dense {
        /// Flat list of values, one per rank in the region's
        /// linearization order.
        values: Vec<T>,
    },

    /// Run-length-encoded representation.
    ///
    /// Each run `(Range<usize>, id)` indicates that the ranks within
    /// `Range` (half-open `[start, end)`) share the same value at
    /// `table[id]`. The `table` stores each distinct value once.
    ///
    /// # Invariants (VM-2)
    /// - **VM-2 (runs-contiguous):** Runs are non-empty and contiguous (`r.start < r.end`).
    /// - Runs collectively cover `0..region.num_ranks()` with no gaps
    ///   or overlaps.
    /// - `id` indexes into `table` (`id < table.len()`).
    Compressed {
        /// The deduplicated set of unique values referenced by runs.
        table: Vec<T>,

        /// List of `(range, table_id)` pairs describing contiguous
        /// runs of identical values in region order.
        runs: Vec<Run>,
    },
}

// At this time, Default is used primarily to satisfy the mailbox
// Accumulator bound. It constructs an empty (zero-rank) mesh. Other
// contexts may also use this as a generic "empty mesh" initializer
// when a concrete region is not yet known.
impl<T> Default for ValueMesh<T> {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self::empty()
    }
}

impl<T> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Returns an *empty* mesh: a 1-dimensional region of length 0.
    ///
    /// This differs from a *dimensionless* (0-D) region, which
    /// represents a single scalar element. A zero-length 1-D region
    /// has **no elements at all**, making it the natural `Default`
    /// placeholder for accumulator state initialization.
    pub fn empty() -> Self {
        // zero-rank region; no constraints on T
        let region = extent!(r = 0).into();
        Self::new_unchecked(region, Vec::<T>::new())
    }

    /// Creates a new `ValueMesh` for `region` with exactly one value
    /// per rank.
    ///
    /// # Invariants
    /// This constructor validates that the number of provided values
    /// (`ranks.len()`) matches the region's cardinality
    /// (`region.num_ranks()`). A value mesh must be complete: every
    /// rank in `region` has a corresponding `T`.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns [`ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality`] if `ranks.len() !=
    /// region.num_ranks()`.
    #[allow(clippy::result_large_err)]
    pub fn new(region: Region, ranks: Vec<T>) -> std::result::Result<Self, ValueMeshError> {
        let (actual, expected) = (ranks.len(), region.num_ranks());
        if actual != expected {
            return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual });
        }
        Ok(Self {
            region,
            rep: Rep::Dense { values: ranks },
        })
    }

    /// Constructs a `ValueMesh` without checking cardinality. Caller
    /// must ensure `ranks.len() == region.num_ranks()`.
    #[inline]
    pub(crate) fn new_unchecked(region: Region, ranks: Vec<T>) -> Self {
        debug_assert_eq!(region.num_ranks(), ranks.len());
        Self {
            region,
            rep: Rep::Dense { values: ranks },
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Clone> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Builds a `ValueMesh` that assigns the single value `s` to
    /// every rank in `region`, without materializing a dense
    /// `Vec<T>`. The result is stored in compressed (RLE) form as a
    /// single run `[0..N)`.
    ///
    /// If `region.num_ranks() == 0`, the mesh contains no runs (and
    /// an empty table), regardless of `s`.
    pub fn from_single(region: Region, s: T) -> Self {
        let n = region.num_ranks();
        if n == 0 {
            return Self {
                region,
                rep: Rep::Compressed {
                    table: Vec::new(),
                    runs: Vec::new(),
                },
            };
        }

        let table = vec![s];
        let runs = vec![Run::new(0, n, 0)];
        Self {
            region,
            rep: Rep::Compressed { table, runs },
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + Default> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Builds a [`ValueMesh`] covering the region, filled with
    /// `T::default()`.
    ///
    /// Equivalent to [`ValueMesh::from_single(region,
    /// T::default())`].
    pub fn from_default(region: Region) -> Self {
        ValueMesh::<T>::from_single(region, T::default())
    }
}

impl<T: Eq + Hash> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Builds a compressed mesh from a default value and a set of
    /// disjoint ranges that override the default.
    ///
    /// - `ranges` may be in any order; they must be non-empty,
    ///   in-bounds, and non-overlapping.
    /// - Unspecified ranks are filled with `default`.
    /// - Result is stored in RLE form; no dense `Vec<T>` is
    ///   materialized.
    #[allow(clippy::result_large_err)]
    pub fn from_ranges_with_default(
        region: Region,
        default: T,
        mut ranges: Vec<(Range<usize>, T)>,
    ) -> std::result::Result<Self, ValueMeshError> {
        let n = region.num_ranks();

        if n == 0 {
            return Ok(Self {
                region,
                rep: Rep::Compressed {
                    table: Vec::new(),
                    runs: Vec::new(),
                },
            });
        }

        // Validate: non-empty, in-bounds; then sort.
        for (r, _) in &ranges {
            if r.is_empty() {
                return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                    expected: n,
                    actual: 0,
                }); // TODO: this surfaces the error but its not a great fit
            }
            if r.end > n {
                return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                    expected: n,
                    actual: r.end,
                });
            }
        }
        ranges.sort_by_key(|(r, _)| (r.start, r.end));

        // Validate: non-overlapping.
        for w in ranges.windows(2) {
            let (a, _) = &w[0];
            let (b, _) = &w[1];
            if a.end > b.start {
                // Overlap
                return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                    expected: n,
                    actual: b.start, // TODO: this surfaces the error but is a bad fit
                });
            }
        }

        // Internal index: value -> table id (assigned once).
        let mut index: HashMap<T, u32> = HashMap::with_capacity(1 + ranges.len());
        let mut next_id: u32 = 0;

        // Helper: assign or reuse an id by value, taking ownership of
        // v.
        let id_of = |v: T, index: &mut HashMap<T, u32>, next_id: &mut u32| -> u32 {
            match index.entry(v) {
                Entry::Occupied(o) => *o.get(),
                Entry::Vacant(vac) => {
                    let id = *next_id;
                    *next_id += 1;
                    vac.insert(id);
                    id
                }
            }
        };

        let default_id = id_of(default, &mut index, &mut next_id);

        let mut runs: Vec<Run> = Vec::with_capacity(1 + 2 * ranges.len());
        let mut cursor = 0usize;

        for (r, v) in ranges.into_iter() {
            // Fill default gap if any.
            if cursor < r.start {
                runs.push(Run::new(cursor, r.start, default_id));
            }
            // Override block.
            let id = id_of(v, &mut index, &mut next_id);
            runs.push(Run::new(r.start, r.end, id));
            cursor = r.end;
        }

        // Trailing default tail.
        if cursor < n {
            runs.push(Run::new(cursor, n, default_id));
        }

        // Materialize table in id order without cloning: move keys
        // out of the map.
        let mut table_slots: Vec<Option<T>> = Vec::new();
        table_slots.resize_with(next_id as usize, || None);

        for (t, id) in index.into_iter() {
            table_slots[id as usize] = Some(t);
        }

        let table: Vec<T> = table_slots
            .into_iter()
            .map(|o| o.expect("every id must be assigned"))
            .collect();

        Ok(Self {
            region,
            rep: Rep::Compressed { table, runs },
        })
    }

    /// Builds a [`ValueMesh`] from a fully materialized dense vector
    /// of per-rank values, then compresses it into run-length–encoded
    /// form if possible.
    ///
    /// This constructor is intended for callers that already have one
    /// value per rank (e.g. computed or received data) but wish to
    /// store it efficiently.
    ///
    /// # Parameters
    /// - `region`: The logical region describing the mesh's shape and
    ///   rank order.
    /// - `values`: A dense vector of values, one per rank in
    ///   `region`.
    ///
    /// # Returns
    /// A [`ValueMesh`] whose internal representation is `Compressed`
    /// if any adjacent elements are equal, or `Dense` if no
    /// compression was possible.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    /// Returns an error if the number of provided `values` does not
    /// match the number of ranks in `region`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    /// ```ignore
    /// let region: Region = extent!(n = 5).into();
    /// let mesh = ValueMesh::from_dense(region, vec![1, 1, 2, 2, 3]).unwrap();
    /// // Internally compressed to three runs: [1, 1], [2, 2], [3]
    /// ```
    #[allow(clippy::result_large_err)]
    pub fn from_dense(region: Region, values: Vec<T>) -> std::result::Result<Self, ValueMeshError> {
        let mut vm = Self::new(region, values)?;
        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        Ok(vm)
    }
}

impl<F: Future> ValueMesh<F> {
    /// Await all futures in the mesh, yielding a `ValueMesh` of their
    /// outputs.
    pub async fn join(self) -> ValueMesh<F::Output> {
        let ValueMesh { region, rep } = self;

        match rep {
            Rep::Dense { values } => {
                let results = futures::future::join_all(values).await;
                ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, results)
            }
            Rep::Compressed { .. } => {
                unreachable!("join() not implemented for compressed meshes")
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T, E> ValueMesh<Result<T, E>> {
    /// Transposes a `ValueMesh<Result<T, E>>` into a
    /// `Result<ValueMesh<T>, E>`.
    pub fn transpose(self) -> Result<ValueMesh<T>, E> {
        let ValueMesh { region, rep } = self;

        match rep {
            Rep::Dense { values } => {
                let values = values.into_iter().collect::<Result<Vec<T>, E>>()?;
                Ok(ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, values))
            }
            Rep::Compressed { table, runs } => {
                let table: Vec<T> = table.into_iter().collect::<Result<Vec<T>, E>>()?;
                Ok(ValueMesh {
                    region,
                    rep: Rep::Compressed { table, runs },
                })
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T: 'static> view::Ranked for ValueMesh<T> {
    type Item = T;

    /// Returns the region that defines this mesh's shape and rank
    /// order.
    fn region(&self) -> &Region {
        &self.region
    }

    /// Looks up the value at the given linearized rank.
    ///
    /// Works transparently for both dense and compressed
    /// representations:
    /// - In the dense case, it simply indexes into the `values`
    ///   vector.
    /// - In the compressed case, it performs a binary search over run
    ///   boundaries to find which run contains the given rank, then
    ///   returns the corresponding entry from `table`.
    ///
    /// Returns `None` if the rank is out of bounds.
    fn get(&self, rank: usize) -> Option<&Self::Item> {
        if rank >= self.region.num_ranks() {
            return None;
        }

        match &self.rep {
            Rep::Dense { values } => values.get(rank),

            Rep::Compressed { table, runs } => {
                let rank = rank as u64;

                // Binary search over runs: find the one whose range
                // contains `rank`.
                let idx = runs
                    .binary_search_by(|run| {
                        if run.end <= rank {
                            Ordering::Less
                        } else if run.start > rank {
                            Ordering::Greater
                        } else {
                            Ordering::Equal
                        }
                    })
                    .ok()?;

                // Map the run's table ID to its actual value.
                let id = runs[idx].id as usize;
                table.get(id)
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T: 'static> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Look up the value at `base_rank` — the rank in the **base space**
    /// of this mesh's region, not the linearized ordinal that
    /// [`view::Ranked::get`] takes.
    ///
    /// For a full region the two coincide; for a sliced sub-region they
    /// differ — e.g. a row slice over base ranks `{2, 3, 4, 5}` has
    /// ordinals `{0, 1, 2, 3}`. This resolves `base_rank` through the
    /// region's geometry (`point_of_base_rank` → ordinal) and then
    /// indexes, so callers address by the stable base-space rank and
    /// never touch the ordinal.
    ///
    /// Returns `None` if `base_rank` is not contained in this region.
    pub fn get_by_base_rank(&self, base_rank: usize) -> Option<&T> {
        if !self.region.slice().contains(base_rank) {
            return None;
        }
        let ordinal = self.region.point_of_base_rank(base_rank).ok()?.rank();
        self.get(ordinal)
    }
}

/// Maps result ordinals to ordinals in the source mesh.
///
/// The affine form uses one relative [`Slice`]. The base-space form resolves
/// ordinals through the selected and source slices when no such affine slice
/// can be derived.
enum SourceOrdinalMapping {
    Affine(Slice),
    BaseSpace { selected: Slice, source: Slice },
}

impl SourceOrdinalMapping {
    /// Build the fastest available mapping from selected ordinals to source
    /// ordinals.
    ///
    /// Input: source ranks `[0, 1, 2, 3]` and selected ranks `[1, 2]`.
    /// Output: a mapping from selected ordinals `[0, 1]` to source ordinals
    /// `[1, 2]`.
    fn new(selected: &Slice, source: &Slice) -> Self {
        // S is the selected dimension count. P is the source dimension count.
        // Construction is O(S + P log P), from deriving the relative slice and
        // decoding its starting source coordinate. The fallback only clones
        // O(S + P) dimension metadata.
        if let Some(relative) = selected.relative_ordinal_slice(source) {
            Self::Affine(relative)
        } else {
            Self::BaseSpace {
                selected: selected.clone(),
                source: source.clone(),
            }
        }
    }

    /// Return the source ordinal for one selected ordinal.
    ///
    /// Input: selected base ranks `[2, 3, 6, 7]`, source ordinals
    /// `[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]`, and selected ordinal `2`.
    /// Output: source ordinal `4`, which contains base rank `6`.
    fn source_ordinal_at(&self, selected_ordinal: usize) -> usize {
        // S is the selected dimension count. P is the source dimension count.
        match self {
            // O(S): `Slice::get` walks the selected dimensions once.
            Self::Affine(source_ordinals) => source_ordinals
                .get(selected_ordinal)
                .expect("selected ordinal should belong to the relative slice"),
            Self::BaseSpace { selected, source } => {
                // O(S + P log P): `selected.get` walks S dimensions, while
                // `source.index` sorts and walks P dimensions.
                let base_rank = selected
                    .get(selected_ordinal)
                    .expect("selected ordinal should belong to the selected slice");

                source
                    .index(base_rank)
                    .expect("selected base rank should belong to the source slice")
            }
        }
    }

    /// Return the first selected ordinal mapped after `source_ordinal`.
    ///
    /// Input: mapping `[1, 2, 4, 5]` and source ordinal `2`.
    /// Output: selected ordinal `2`, whose mapped source ordinal is `4`.
    fn first_selected_ordinal_after(&self, source_ordinal: usize) -> usize {
        // N is the selected ordinal count. S is the selected dimension count.
        // P is the source dimension count.
        match self {
            Self::Affine(source_ordinals) => {
                // O(S): resolve the boundary with one selected-dimension pass.
                if source_ordinal < source_ordinals.offset() {
                    return 0;
                }

                let mut distance = source_ordinal - source_ordinals.offset();
                let mut selected_stride = source_ordinals.len();
                let mut selected_ordinal = 0;

                for (&dim_size, &source_stride) in source_ordinals
                    .sizes()
                    .iter()
                    .zip(source_ordinals.strides())
                {
                    selected_stride /= dim_size;
                    let coordinate = (distance / source_stride).min(dim_size - 1);
                    selected_ordinal += coordinate * selected_stride;
                    distance -= coordinate * source_stride;
                }

                selected_ordinal + 1
            }
            Self::BaseSpace { selected, .. } => {
                // O(log N * (S + P log P)): binary-search N selected ordinals,
                // using one base-space source lookup for each probe.
                let mut lower_cursor = 0;
                let mut upper_cursor = selected.len();

                while lower_cursor < upper_cursor {
                    let middle = lower_cursor + (upper_cursor - lower_cursor) / 2;

                    if self.source_ordinal_at(middle) <= source_ordinal {
                        lower_cursor = middle + 1;
                    } else {
                        upper_cursor = middle;
                    }
                }

                lower_cursor
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + 'static> view::RankedSliceable for ValueMesh<T> {
    fn sliced(&self, region: Region) -> Self {
        debug_assert!(region.is_subset(self.region()), "sliced: not a subset");

        self.sliced_unchecked(region)
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + 'static> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Slice this mesh without checking that the selected region belongs to it.
    ///
    /// The caller must ensure that `region` is a subset of this mesh's region.
    ///
    /// ```text
    /// mesh:   [v0 v1 v2 v3]
    /// region:     [1]   [3]
    /// output: [v1 v3]
    /// ```
    pub fn sliced_unchecked(&self, region: Region) -> Self {
        match &self.rep {
            Rep::Dense { .. } => self.slice_dense(region),
            Rep::Compressed { .. } if region.num_ranks() == 0 => Self {
                region,
                rep: Rep::Compressed {
                    table: Vec::new(),
                    runs: Vec::new(),
                },
            },
            Rep::Compressed { table, runs } => {
                let source_ordinals =
                    SourceOrdinalMapping::new(region.slice(), self.region.slice());

                self.slice_compressed(region, table, runs, source_ordinals)
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + 'static> ValueMesh<T> {
    fn slice_dense(&self, region: Region) -> Self {
        let ranks: Vec<T> = self
            .region()
            .remap(&region)
            .unwrap()
            .map(|index| self.get(index).unwrap().clone())
            .collect();
        debug_assert_eq!(
            region.num_ranks(),
            ranks.len(),
            "sliced: cardinality mismatch"
        );
        Self::new_unchecked(region, ranks)
    }

    /// Slice an RLE mesh without visiting every selected rank.
    ///
    /// For each source run that intersects the slice, find the first selected
    /// rank inside the run and the first selected rank after the run. These
    /// slice-relative ranks become the start and end of an output run.
    ///
    /// `source_ordinals` maps each ordinal in the result to an ordinal in the
    /// source mesh. For each source run, it finds the first selected rank after
    /// the run without visiting each selected rank.
    ///
    /// ```text
    /// slice_ordinals: sizes=[3, 3], strides=[8, 2], offset=9
    ///
    ///    9 _ 11 _ 13
    ///   17 _ 19 _ 21
    ///   25 _ 27 _ 29
    ///
    /// source runs:  A=[0,13)  B=[13,20)  C=[20,40)
    /// selected:       A  A      B  B  B      C  C  C  C
    /// output runs:  A=[0,2)   B=[2,5)     C=[5,9)
    /// ```
    ///
    /// Work therefore scales with intersecting source runs rather than selected
    /// ranks when the source compresses well.
    fn slice_compressed(
        &self,
        slice_region: Region,
        value_table: &[T],
        source_runs: &[Run],
        source_ordinals: SourceOrdinalMapping,
    ) -> Self {
        let mut slice_runs: Vec<Run> = Vec::new();
        let mut slice_ordinal_cursor = 0usize;
        let mut source_ordinal_cursor = source_ordinals.source_ordinal_at(0);
        let mut source_run_index = 0usize;

        while slice_ordinal_cursor < slice_region.num_ranks() {
            // Slice iteration and source runs are both ordered, so this cursor
            // only moves forward. Strided selections can skip complete runs.
            while source_runs
                .get(source_run_index)
                .is_some_and(|run| run.end as usize <= source_ordinal_cursor)
            {
                source_run_index += 1;
            }

            let source_run = &source_runs[source_run_index];
            debug_assert!(source_run.start as usize <= source_ordinal_cursor);

            let next_slice_ordinal =
                source_ordinals.first_selected_ordinal_after(source_run.end as usize - 1);

            if let Some(previous_run) = slice_runs.last_mut()
                && previous_run.id == source_run.id
            {
                // `Run` has same value as the previous `Run`, extend the previous `Run`:
                //   source runs:    2A  2B  2A
                //   selected ranks: 2A      2A
                //   output:         4A
                previous_run.end = next_slice_ordinal as u64;
            } else {
                // Append `Run` to end
                slice_runs.push(Run::new(
                    slice_ordinal_cursor,
                    next_slice_ordinal,
                    source_run.id,
                ));
            }

            slice_ordinal_cursor = next_slice_ordinal;

            if slice_ordinal_cursor < slice_region.num_ranks() {
                source_ordinal_cursor = source_ordinals.source_ordinal_at(slice_ordinal_cursor);
            }
        }

        Self {
            region: slice_region,
            rep: Rep::Compressed {
                table: value_table.to_vec(),
                runs: slice_runs,
            },
        }
    }
}

impl<T> view::BuildFromRegion<T> for ValueMesh<T> {
    type Error = ValueMeshError;

    fn build_dense(region: Region, values: Vec<T>) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        Self::new(region, values)
    }

    fn build_dense_unchecked(region: Region, values: Vec<T>) -> Self {
        Self::new_unchecked(region, values)
    }
}

impl<T> view::BuildFromRegionIndexed<T> for ValueMesh<T> {
    type Error = ValueMeshError;

    fn build_indexed(
        region: Region,
        pairs: impl IntoIterator<Item = (usize, T)>,
    ) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
        let n = region.num_ranks();

        // Allocate uninitialized buffer for T.
        // Note: Vec<MaybeUninit<T>>'s Drop will only free the
        // allocation; it never runs T's destructor. We must
        // explicitly drop any initialized elements (DropGuard) or
        // convert into Vec<T>.
        let mut buf: Vec<MaybeUninit<T>> = Vec::with_capacity(n);
        // SAFETY: set `len = n` to treat the buffer as n uninit slots
        // of `MaybeUninit<T>`. We never read before `ptr::write`,
        // drop only slots marked initialized (bitset), and convert to
        // `Vec<T>` only once all 0..n are initialized (guard enforces
        // this).
        unsafe {
            buf.set_len(n);
        }

        // Compact bitset for occupancy.
        let words = n.div_ceil(64);
        let mut bits = vec![0u64; words];
        let mut filled = 0usize;

        // Drop guard: cleans up initialized elements on early exit.
        // Stores raw, non-borrowed pointers (`NonNull`), so we don't
        // hold Rust references for the whole scope. This allows
        // mutating `buf`/`bits` inside the loop while still letting
        // the guard access them if dropped early.
        struct DropGuard<T> {
            buf: NonNull<MaybeUninit<T>>,
            bits: NonNull<u64>,
            n_elems: usize,
            n_words: usize,
            disarm: bool,
        }

        impl<T> DropGuard<T> {
            /// # Safety
            /// - `buf` points to `buf.len()` contiguous
            ///   `MaybeUninit<T>` and outlives the guard.
            /// - `bits` points to `bits.len()` contiguous `u64` words
            ///   and outlives the guard.
            /// - For every set bit `i` in `bits`, `buf[i]` has been
            ///   initialized with a valid `T` (and on duplicates, the
            ///   previous `T` at `i` was dropped before overwrite).
            /// - While the guard is alive, caller may mutate
            ///   `buf`/`bits` (the guard holds only raw pointers; it
            ///   does not create Rust borrows).
            /// - On drop (when not disarmed), the guard will read
            ///   `bits`, mask tail bits in the final word, and
            ///   `drop_in_place` each initialized `buf[i]`—never
            ///   accessing beyond `buf.len()` / `bits.len()`.
            /// - If a slice is empty, the stored pointer may be
            ///   `dangling()`; it is never dereferenced when the
            ///   corresponding length is zero.
            unsafe fn new(buf: &mut [MaybeUninit<T>], bits: &mut [u64]) -> Self {
                let n_elems = buf.len();
                let n_words = bits.len();
                // Expected: n_words == (n_elems + 63) / 64
                // but we don't *require* it; tail is masked in Drop.
                Self {
                    buf: NonNull::new(buf.as_mut_ptr()).unwrap_or_else(NonNull::dangling),
                    bits: NonNull::new(bits.as_mut_ptr()).unwrap_or_else(NonNull::dangling),
                    n_elems,
                    n_words,
                    disarm: false,
                }
            }

            #[inline]
            fn disarm(&mut self) {
                self.disarm = true;
            }
        }

        impl<T> Drop for DropGuard<T> {
            fn drop(&mut self) {
                if self.disarm {
                    return;
                }

                // SAFETY:
                // - `self.buf` points to `n_elems` contiguous
                //   `MaybeUninit<T>` slots (or may be dangling if
                //   `n_elems == 0`); `self.bits` points to `n_words`
                //   contiguous `u64` words (or may be dangling if
                //   `n_words == 0`).
                // - Loop bounds ensure `w < n_words` when reading
                //   `*bits_base.add(w)`.
                // - For the final word we mask unused tail bits so
                //   any computed index `i = w * 64 + tz` always
                //   satisfies `i < n_elems` before we dereference
                //   `buf_base.add(i)`.
                // - Only slots whose bits are set are dropped, so no
                //   double-drops.
                // - No aliasing with active Rust borrows: the guard
                //   holds raw pointers and runs in `Drop` after the
                //   fill loop.
                unsafe {
                    let buf_base = self.buf.as_ptr();
                    let bits_base = self.bits.as_ptr();

                    for w in 0..self.n_words {
                        // Load word.
                        let mut word = *bits_base.add(w);

                        // Mask off bits beyond `n_elems` in the final
                        // word (if any).
                        if w == self.n_words.saturating_sub(1) {
                            let used_bits = self.n_elems.saturating_sub(w * 64);
                            if used_bits < 64 {
                                let mask = if used_bits == 0 {
                                    0
                                } else {
                                    (1u64 << used_bits) - 1
                                };
                                word &= mask;
                            }
                        }

                        // Fast scan set bits.
                        while word != 0 {
                            let tz = word.trailing_zeros() as usize;
                            let i = w * 64 + tz;
                            debug_assert!(i < self.n_elems);

                            let slot = buf_base.add(i);
                            // Drop the initialized element.
                            ptr::drop_in_place((*slot).as_mut_ptr());

                            // clear the bit we just handled
                            word &= word - 1;
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        // SAFETY:
        // - `buf` and `bits` are freshly allocated Vecs with
        //   capacity/len set to cover exactly `n_elems` and `n_words`,
        //   so their `.as_mut_ptr()` is valid for that many elements.
        // - Both slices live at least as long as the guard, and are
        //   not moved until after the guard is disarmed.
        // - No aliasing occurs: the guard holds only raw pointers and
        //   the fill loop mutates through those same allocations.
        let mut guard = unsafe { DropGuard::new(&mut buf, &mut bits) };

        for (rank, value) in pairs {
            // Single bounds check up front.
            if rank >= guard.n_elems {
                return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                    expected: guard.n_elems,
                    actual: rank + 1,
                });
            }

            // Compute word index and bit mask once.
            let w = rank / 64;
            let b = rank % 64;
            let mask = 1u64 << b;

            // SAFETY:
            // - `rank < guard.n_elems` was checked above, so
            //   `buf_slot = buf.add(rank)` is within the
            //   `Vec<MaybeUninit<T>>` allocation.
            // - `w = rank / 64` and `bits.len() == (n + 63) / 64`
            //   ensure `bits_ptr = bits.add(w)` is in-bounds.
            // - If `(word & mask) != 0`, then this slot was
            //   previously initialized;
            //   `drop_in_place((*buf_slot).as_mut_ptr())` is valid and
            //   leaves the slot uninitialized.
            // - If the bit was clear, we set it and count `filled +=
            //   1`.
            // - `(*buf_slot).write(value)` is valid in both cases:
            //   either writing into an uninitialized slot or
            //   immediately after dropping the prior `T`.
            // - No aliasing with Rust references: the guard holds raw
            //   pointers and we have exclusive ownership of
            //   `buf`/`bits` within this function.
            unsafe {
                // Pointers from the guard (no long-lived & borrows).
                let bits_ptr = guard.bits.as_ptr().add(w);
                let buf_slot = guard.buf.as_ptr().add(rank);

                // Read the current word.
                let word = *bits_ptr;

                if (word & mask) != 0 {
                    // Duplicate: drop old value before overwriting.
                    core::ptr::drop_in_place((*buf_slot).as_mut_ptr());
                    // (Bit already set; no need to set again; don't
                    // bump `filled`.)
                } else {
                    // First time we see this rank.
                    *bits_ptr = word | mask;
                    filled += 1;
                }

                // Write new value into the slot.
                (*buf_slot).write(value);
            }
        }

        if filled != n {
            // Missing ranks: actual = number of distinct ranks seen.
            return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                expected: n,
                actual: filled,
            });
        }

        // Success: prevent cleanup.
        guard.disarm();

        // SAFETY: all n slots are initialized
        let ranks = unsafe {
            let ptr = buf.as_mut_ptr() as *mut T;
            let len = buf.len();
            let cap = buf.capacity();
            // Prevent `buf` (Vec<MaybeUninit<T>>) from freeing the
            // allocation. Ownership of the buffer is about to be
            // transferred to `Vec<T>` via `from_raw_parts`.
            // Forgetting avoids a double free.
            mem::forget(buf);
            Vec::from_raw_parts(ptr, len, cap)
        };

        Ok(Self::new_unchecked(region, ranks))
    }
}

impl<T: PartialEq> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Compresses the mesh in place using run-length encoding (RLE).
    ///
    /// This method scans the mesh's dense values, coalescing adjacent
    /// runs of identical elements into a compact [`Rep::Compressed`]
    /// representation. It replaces the internal storage (`rep`) with
    /// the compressed form.
    ///
    /// # Behavior
    /// - If the mesh is already compressed, this is a **no-op**.
    /// - If the mesh is dense, it consumes the current `Vec<T>` and
    ///   rebuilds the representation as a run table plus value table.
    /// - Only *adjacent* equal values are merged; non-contiguous
    ///   duplicates remain distinct.
    ///
    /// # Requirements
    /// - `T` must implement [`PartialEq`] (to detect equal values).
    ///
    /// This operation is lossless: expanding the compressed mesh back
    /// into a dense vector yields the same sequence of values.
    pub fn compress_adjacent_in_place(&mut self) {
        self.compress_adjacent_in_place_by(|a, b| a == b)
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + PartialEq> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Materializes this mesh into a vector of `(Range<usize>, T)`
    /// runs.
    ///
    /// For a dense representation, this walks the value vector and
    /// groups adjacent equal values into contiguous runs. The result
    /// is equivalent to what would be stored in a compressed
    /// representation, but the mesh itself is not mutated or
    /// re-encoded. This is purely a read-only view.
    ///
    /// For a compressed representation, the stored runs are simply
    /// cloned.
    ///
    /// This method is intended for inspection, testing, and
    /// diff/merge operations that need a uniform view of value runs
    /// without changing the underlying representation.
    fn materialized_runs(&self) -> Vec<(Range<usize>, T)> {
        match &self.rep {
            Rep::Dense { values } => {
                // Coalesce adjacent equals into runs.
                let mut out = Vec::new();
                if values.is_empty() {
                    return out;
                }
                let mut start = 0usize;
                for i in 1..values.len() {
                    if values[i] != values[i - 1] {
                        out.push((start..i, values[i - 1].clone()));
                        start = i;
                    }
                }
                out.push((start..values.len(), values.last().unwrap().clone()));
                out
            }
            Rep::Compressed { table, runs } => runs
                .iter()
                .map(|r| {
                    let id = r.id as usize;
                    ((r.start as usize..r.end as usize), table[id].clone())
                })
                .collect(),
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Clone + Eq> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Merge a sparse overlay into this mesh.
    ///
    /// Overlay segments are applied with **last-writer-wins**
    /// precedence on overlap (identical to `RankedValues::merge_from`
    /// behavior). The result is stored compressed.
    pub fn merge_from_overlay(&mut self, overlay: ValueOverlay<T>) -> Result<(), BuildError> {
        let n = self.region.num_ranks();

        // Bounds validation (structure already validated by
        // ValueOverlay).
        for (r, _) in overlay.runs() {
            if r.end > n {
                return Err(BuildError::OutOfBounds {
                    range: r.clone(),
                    region_len: n,
                });
            }
        }

        // Left: current mesh as normalized value-bearing runs.
        let left = self.materialized_runs();
        // Right: overlay runs (already sorted, non-overlapping,
        // coalesced).
        let right: Vec<(std::ops::Range<usize>, T)> = overlay.runs().cloned().collect();

        // Merge with overlay precedence, reusing the same splitting
        // strategy as RankedValues::merge_from.
        let merged = rle::merge_value_runs(left, right);

        // Re-encode to compressed representation:
        let (table, raw_runs) = rle::rle_from_value_runs(merged);
        let runs = raw_runs
            .into_iter()
            .map(|(r, id)| Run::new(r.start, r.end, id))
            .collect();
        self.rep = Rep::Compressed { table, runs };

        Ok(())
    }
}

impl<T> ValueMesh<T> {
    /// Compresses the mesh in place using a custom equivalence
    /// predicate.
    ///
    /// This is a generalized form of [`compress_adjacent_in_place`]
    /// that merges adjacent values according to an arbitrary
    /// predicate `same(a, b)`, rather than relying on `PartialEq`.
    ///
    /// # Behavior
    /// - If the mesh is already compressed, this is a **no-op**.
    /// - Otherwise, consumes the dense `Vec<T>` and replaces it with
    ///   a run-length encoded (`Rep::Compressed`) representation,
    ///   where consecutive elements satisfying `same(a, b)` are
    ///   coalesced into a single run.
    ///
    /// # Requirements
    /// - The predicate must be reflexive and symmetric for
    ///   correctness.
    ///
    /// This operation is lossless: expanding the compressed mesh
    /// reproduces the original sequence exactly under the same
    /// equivalence.
    pub fn compress_adjacent_in_place_by<F>(&mut self, same: F)
    where
        F: FnMut(&T, &T) -> bool,
    {
        let values = match &mut self.rep {
            Rep::Dense { values } => std::mem::take(values),
            Rep::Compressed { .. } => return,
        };
        let (table, raw_runs) = rle::rle_from_dense(values, same);
        let runs = raw_runs
            .into_iter()
            .map(|(r, id)| Run::new(r.start, r.end, id))
            .collect();
        self.rep = Rep::Compressed { table, runs };
    }
}

/// Accumulates sparse overlay updates into an authoritative mesh.
///
/// Lifecycle:
/// - Mailbox initializes `State` via `Default` (empty mesh).
/// - On the first update, the accumulator clones `self` (the template
///   passed to `open_accum_port_opts`) into `state`. Callers pass a
///   template such as `StatusMesh::from_single(region, NotExist)`.
/// - Each overlay update is merged with right-wins semantics via
///   `merge_from_overlay`, and the accumulator emits a *full*
///   ValueMesh.
///
/// The accumulator's state is a [`ValueMesh<T>`] and its updates are
/// [`ValueOverlay<T>`] instances. On each update, the overlay's
/// normalized runs are merged into the mesh using
/// [`ValueMesh::merge_from_overlay`] with right-wins semantics.
///
/// This enables incremental reduction of sparse updates across
/// distributed reducers without materializing dense data.
impl<T> Accumulator for ValueMesh<T>
where
    T: Eq + Clone + Named,
{
    type State = Self;
    type Update = ValueOverlay<T>;

    fn accumulate(&self, state: &mut Self::State, update: Self::Update) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        // Mailbox starts with A::State::default() (empty). On the
        // first update, re-initialize to our template (self), which
        // the caller constructed as "full NotExist over the target
        // region".
        if state.region().num_ranks() == 0 {
            *state = self.clone();
        }

        // Apply sparse delta into the authoritative mesh
        // (right-wins).
        state.merge_from_overlay(update)?;
        Ok(())
    }

    fn reducer_spec(&self) -> Option<ReducerSpec> {
        Some(ReducerSpec {
            typehash: <ValueOverlayReducer<T> as Named>::typehash(),
            builder_params: None,
        })
    }
}

/// Marker reducer type for [`ValueOverlay<T>`].
///
/// This reducer carries no state; it exists only to bind a concrete
/// type parameter `T` to the [`CommReducer`] implementation below.
/// Reduction is purely functional and uses right-wins merge semantics
/// defined in [`rle::merge_value_runs`].
#[derive(Named)]
pub struct ValueOverlayReducer<T>(PhantomData<T>);

impl<T> ValueOverlayReducer<T> {
    /// Create a reducer for sparse [`ValueOverlay<T>`] updates.
    pub fn new() -> Self {
        Self(PhantomData)
    }
}

/// Reducer for sparse overlay updates.
///
/// Combines two [`ValueOverlay<T>`] updates using right-wins
/// semantics: overlapping runs from `right` overwrite those in
/// `left`. The merged runs are then normalized and validated via
/// [`ValueOverlay::try_from_runs`].
///
/// Used by the corresponding [`Accumulator`] to perform distributed
/// reduction of incremental mesh updates.
impl<T> CommReducer for ValueOverlayReducer<T>
where
    T: Eq + Clone + Named,
{
    type Update = ValueOverlay<T>;

    // Last-writer-wins merge of two sparse overlays.
    fn reduce(&self, left: Self::Update, right: Self::Update) -> anyhow::Result<Self::Update> {
        let merged = rle::merge_value_runs(
            left.runs().cloned().collect(),
            right.runs().cloned().collect(),
        );
        Ok(ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(merged)?)
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use std::convert::Infallible;
    use std::future::Future;
    use std::pin::Pin;
    use std::task::Context;
    use std::task::Poll;
    use std::task::RawWaker;
    use std::task::RawWakerVTable;
    use std::task::Waker;

    use futures::executor::block_on;
    use futures::future;
    use ndslice::extent;
    use ndslice::strategy::gen_region;
    use ndslice::view::CollectExactMeshExt;
    use ndslice::view::CollectIndexedMeshExt;
    use ndslice::view::CollectMeshExt;
    use ndslice::view::MapIntoExt;
    use ndslice::view::Ranked;
    use ndslice::view::RankedSliceable;
    use ndslice::view::ViewExt;
    use proptest::prelude::*;
    use proptest::strategy::ValueTree;
    use serde::Deserialize;
    use serde::Serialize;
    use serde_json;
    use typeuri::Named;

    use super::*;

    /// Generates supported rectangular slicing cases.
    fn rectangular_slicing_case() -> impl Strategy<Value = (Region, Region, Vec<u8>)> {
        // Generate one- to four-dimensional parents with small, sometimes
        // singleton extents.
        prop::collection::vec(1usize..=5, 1..=4)
            // Bound the work performed by each property-test case.
            .prop_filter("rank count must stay small", |sizes| {
                sizes.iter().product::<usize>() <= 256
            })
            // Generate the affine layout, rectangular selection, and values
            // after the parent shape determines their lengths.
            .prop_flat_map(|sizes| {
                let num_dims = sizes.len();
                let num_ranks: usize = sizes.iter().product();
                (
                    Just(sizes),
                    // Exercise arbitrary base-rank offsets.
                    0usize..=16,
                    // Exercise dense row-major layouts with scaled strides.
                    1usize..=4,
                    // Seed a nonempty contiguous or strided range per dimension.
                    prop::collection::vec((0usize..=32, 0usize..=32, 0usize..=32), num_dims),
                    // A small alphabet produces merged and fragmented RLE runs.
                    prop::collection::vec(0u8..=3, num_ranks),
                )
            })
            // Convert the generated parameters into a parent region and one
            // rectangular subregion.
            .prop_map(|(sizes, offset, scale, ranges, values)| {
                let labels: Vec<_> = (0..sizes.len()).map(|dim| format!("d{dim}")).collect();
                let mut strides = vec![0; sizes.len()];
                let mut stride = scale;
                for dim in (0..sizes.len()).rev() {
                    strides[dim] = stride;
                    stride *= sizes[dim];
                }

                let region = Region::new(
                    labels.clone(),
                    Slice::new(offset, sizes.clone(), strides)
                        .expect("generated parent slice should be valid"),
                );
                let selected = ranges.into_iter().enumerate().fold(
                    region.clone(),
                    |selected, (dim, (begin_seed, end_seed, step_seed))| {
                        let begin = begin_seed % sizes[dim];
                        let end = begin + 1 + end_seed % (sizes[dim] - begin);
                        let valid_steps: Vec<_> = (1..=sizes[dim])
                            .filter(|step| sizes[dim].is_multiple_of(*step))
                            .collect();
                        let step = valid_steps[step_seed % valid_steps.len()];
                        selected
                            .range(&labels[dim], ndslice::Range(begin, Some(end), step))
                            .expect("generated range should be valid")
                    },
                );

                (region, selected, values)
            })
    }

    proptest! {
        #![proptest_config(ProptestConfig::with_cases(512))]

        #[test]
        fn compressed_slicing_matches_dense_slicing(
            (region, selected, values) in rectangular_slicing_case()
        ) {
            let dense = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, values);
            let mut compressed = dense.clone();
            compressed.compress_adjacent_in_place();

            let expected = dense.sliced(selected.clone());
            let actual = compressed.sliced(selected);

            prop_assert_eq!(actual.region(), expected.region());
            prop_assert_eq!(
                actual.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
                expected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            );
            prop_assert!(
                matches!(actual.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }),
                "the supported rectangular selection should stay compressed",
            );
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn compressed_slicing_supports_reshape() {
        let matrix: Region = extent!(host = 2, gpu = 2).into();
        let mesh = ValueMesh::from_dense(matrix.clone(), vec![0, 0, 1, 1])
            .expect("values should match the source region");
        let flat = Region::new(vec!["rank".to_string()], Slice::new_row_major(vec![4]));

        let flattened = mesh.sliced(flat);

        assert_eq!(flattened.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 0, 1, 1]);
        assert!(matches!(flattened.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));

        let reshaped = flattened.sliced(matrix);

        assert_eq!(reshaped.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 0, 1, 1]);
        assert!(matches!(reshaped.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));
    }

    #[test]
    fn compressed_slicing_matches_dense_for_dimension_changing_subset() {
        // parent:    [0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3]
        // selected:      1 1
        //                2 2
        let parent = Region::new(vec!["rank".to_string()], Slice::new_row_major(vec![8]));

        let dense = ValueMesh::new(parent, vec![0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
            .expect("values should match the parent region");

        let mut compressed = dense.clone();

        compressed.compress_adjacent_in_place();

        let selected = Region::new(
            vec!["row".to_string(), "column".to_string()],
            Slice::new(2, vec![2, 2], vec![2, 1]).expect("selection should be valid"),
        );

        assert!(selected.is_subset(dense.region()));

        let expected = dense.sliced(selected.clone());
        let actual = compressed.sliced(selected);

        assert_eq!(expected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1, 1, 2, 2]);

        assert_eq!(actual.region(), expected.region());

        assert_eq!(
            actual.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            expected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );

        assert!(matches!(actual.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));
    }

    #[test]
    fn compressed_slicing_matches_dense_for_reshaped_proper_subset() {
        // parent base ranks:    0  1  2  3  4  5
        //                       8  9 10 11 12 13
        // selected base ranks:     1  2  3  4
        //                          9 10 11 12
        let parent = Region::new(
            vec!["row".to_string(), "column".to_string()],
            Slice::new(0, vec![2, 6], vec![8, 1]).expect("parent should be valid"),
        );
        let dense = ValueMesh::new(parent, vec![0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5])
            .expect("values should match the parent region");
        let mut compressed = dense.clone();
        compressed.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let selected = Region::new(
            vec!["outer".to_string(), "row".to_string(), "column".to_string()],
            Slice::new(1, vec![2, 2, 2], vec![8, 2, 1]).expect("selection should be valid"),
        );

        let expected = dense.sliced(selected.clone());
        let actual = compressed.sliced(selected);

        assert_eq!(
            expected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5]
        );
        assert_eq!(actual.region(), expected.region());
        assert_eq!(
            actual.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            expected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );
        assert!(matches!(actual.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));
    }

    #[test]
    fn value_mesh_new_ok() {
        let region: Region = extent!(replica = 2, gpu = 3).into();
        let mesh = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), (0..6).collect()).expect("new should succeed");
        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 6);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().count(), 6);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn get_by_base_rank_resolves_through_region_geometry() {
        // Full region: base rank == ordinal, so get_by_base_rank agrees
        // with positional get; out-of-region base ranks return None.
        let region: Region = extent!(row = 4, col = 2).into();
        let mesh: ValueMesh<i32> =
            ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), (0..8).map(|i| i * 10).collect()).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(mesh.get_by_base_rank(0), Some(&0));
        assert_eq!(mesh.get_by_base_rank(5), Some(&50));
        assert_eq!(mesh.get_by_base_rank(8), None);

        // Slice rows 1..3 -> base ranks {2, 3, 4, 5}, ordinals {0, 1, 2, 3};
        // the sub-mesh carries values {20, 30, 40, 50}.
        let sub = mesh.sliced(region.range("row", ndslice::Range(1, Some(3), 1)).unwrap());

        // Addressed by BASE rank, which is the whole point:
        assert_eq!(sub.get_by_base_rank(2), Some(&20)); // base 2 -> ordinal 0
        assert_eq!(sub.get_by_base_rank(5), Some(&50)); // base 5 -> ordinal 3
        assert_eq!(sub.get_by_base_rank(0), None); // below the slice
        assert_eq!(sub.get_by_base_rank(6), None); // in the parent, not the slice

        // Contrast: positional get still indexes by ordinal.
        assert_eq!(sub.get(0), Some(&20)); // ordinal 0 == base rank 2
    }

    #[test]
    fn value_mesh_new_len_mismatch_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(replica = 2, gpu = 3).into();
        let err = ValueMesh::new(region, vec![0_i32; 5]).unwrap_err();
        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 6);
        assert_eq!(actual, 5);
    }

    #[test]
    fn value_mesh_transpose_ok_and_err() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2).into();

        // ok case
        let ok_mesh = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), vec![Ok::<_, Infallible>(1), Ok(2)]).unwrap();
        let ok = ok_mesh.transpose().unwrap();
        assert_eq!(ok.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1, 2]);

        // err case: propagate user E
        #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
        enum E {
            Boom,
        }
        let err_mesh = ValueMesh::new(region, vec![Ok(1), Err(E::Boom)]).unwrap();
        let err = err_mesh.transpose().unwrap_err();
        assert_eq!(err, E::Boom);
    }

    #[test]
    fn value_mesh_join_preserves_region_and_values() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 2).into();
        let futs = vec![
            future::ready(10),
            future::ready(11),
            future::ready(12),
            future::ready(13),
        ];
        let mesh = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), futs).unwrap();

        let joined = block_on(mesh.join());
        assert_eq!(joined.region().num_ranks(), 4);
        assert_eq!(joined.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![10, 11, 12, 13]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_mesh_ok() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let mesh = (0..6)
            .collect_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .expect("collect_mesh should succeed");

        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 6);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_mesh_len_too_short_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let err = (0..5).collect_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region).unwrap_err();

        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 6);
        assert_eq!(actual, 5);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_mesh_len_too_long_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let err = (0..7).collect_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region).unwrap_err();
        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 6);
        assert_eq!(actual, 7);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_mesh_from_map_pipeline() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 2).into();
        let mesh = (0..4)
            .map(|i| i * 10)
            .collect_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 4);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 10, 20, 30]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_exact_mesh_ok() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let mesh = (0..6)
            .collect_exact_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .expect("collect_exact_mesh should succeed");

        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 6);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_exact_mesh_len_too_short_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let err = (0..5)
            .collect_exact_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region)
            .unwrap_err();

        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 6);
        assert_eq!(actual, 5);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_exact_mesh_len_too_long_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        let err = (0..7)
            .collect_exact_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region)
            .unwrap_err();

        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 6);
        assert_eq!(actual, 7);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_exact_mesh_from_map_pipeline() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 2).into();
        let mesh = (0..4)
            .map(|i| i * 10)
            .collect_exact_mesh::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 4);
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 10, 20, 30]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_indexed_ok_shuffled() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into();
        // (rank, value) in shuffled order; values = rank * 10
        let pairs = vec![(3, 30), (0, 0), (5, 50), (2, 20), (1, 10), (4, 40)];
        let mesh = pairs
            .into_iter()
            .collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(mesh.region().num_ranks(), 6);
        assert_eq!(
            mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_indexed_missing_rank_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 2).into(); // 4
        // Missing rank 3
        let pairs = vec![(0, 100), (1, 101), (2, 102)];
        let err = pairs
            .into_iter()
            .collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region)
            .unwrap_err();

        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 4);
        assert_eq!(actual, 3); // Distinct ranks seen.
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_indexed_out_of_bounds_is_error() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 2).into(); // 4 (valid ranks 0..=3)
        let pairs = vec![(0, 1), (4, 9)]; // 4 is out-of-bounds
        let err = pairs
            .into_iter()
            .collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region)
            .unwrap_err();

        let ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality { expected, actual } = err;
        assert_eq!(expected, 4);
        assert_eq!(actual, 5); // offending index + 1
    }

    #[test]
    fn collect_indexed_duplicate_last_write_wins() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 1, y = 3).into(); // 3
        // rank 1 appears twice; last value should stick
        let pairs = vec![(0, 7), (1, 8), (1, 88), (2, 9)];
        let mesh = pairs
            .into_iter()
            .collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![7, 88, 9]);
    }

    // Indexed collector naïve implementation (for reference).
    #[allow(clippy::result_large_err)]
    fn build_value_mesh_indexed<T>(
        region: Region,
        pairs: impl IntoIterator<Item = (usize, T)>,
    ) -> std::result::Result<ValueMesh<T>, ValueMeshError> {
        let n = region.num_ranks();

        // Buffer for exactly n slots; fill by rank.
        let mut buf: Vec<Option<T>> = std::iter::repeat_with(|| None).take(n).collect();
        let mut filled = 0usize;

        for (rank, value) in pairs {
            if rank >= n {
                // Out-of-bounds: report `expected` = n, `actual` =
                // offending index + 1; i.e. number of ranks implied
                // so far.
                return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                    expected: n,
                    actual: rank + 1,
                });
            }
            if buf[rank].is_none() {
                filled += 1;
            }
            buf[rank] = Some(value); // Last write wins.
        }

        if filled != n {
            // Missing ranks: actual = number of distinct ranks seen.
            return Err(ValueMeshError::InvalidRankCardinality {
                expected: n,
                actual: filled,
            });
        }

        // All present and in-bounds: unwrap and build unchecked.
        let ranks: Vec<T> = buf.into_iter().map(Option::unwrap).collect();
        Ok(ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, ranks))
    }

    /// This uses the bit-mixing portion of Sebastiano Vigna's
    /// [SplitMix64 algorithm](https://prng.di.unimi.it/splitmix64.c)
    /// to generate a high-quality 64-bit hash from a usize index.
    /// Unlike the full SplitMix64 generator, this is stateless - we
    /// accept an arbitrary x as input and apply the mix function to
    /// turn `x` deterministically into a "randomized" u64. input
    /// always produces the same output.
    fn hash_key(x: usize) -> u64 {
        let mut z = x as u64 ^ 0x9E3779B97F4A7C15;
        z = (z ^ (z >> 30)).wrapping_mul(0xBF58476D1CE4E5B9);
        z = (z ^ (z >> 27)).wrapping_mul(0x94D049BB133111EB);
        z ^ (z >> 31)
    }

    /// Shuffle a slice deterministically, using a hash of indices as
    /// the key.
    ///
    /// Each position `i` is assigned a pseudo-random 64-bit key (from
    /// `key(i)`), the slice is sorted by those keys, and the
    /// resulting permutation is applied in place.
    ///
    /// The permutation is fully determined by the sequence of indices
    /// `0..n` and the chosen `key` function. Running it twice on the
    /// same input yields the same "random-looking" arrangement.
    ///
    /// This is going to be used (below) for property tests: it gives
    /// the effect of a shuffle without introducing global RNG state,
    /// and ensures that duplicate elements are still ordered
    /// consistently (so we can test "last write wins" semantics in
    /// collectors).
    fn pseudo_shuffle<'a, T: 'a>(v: &'a mut [T], key: impl Fn(usize) -> u64 + Copy) {
        // Build perm.
        let mut with_keys: Vec<(u64, usize)> = (0..v.len()).map(|i| (key(i), i)).collect();
        with_keys.sort_by_key(|&(k, _)| k);
        let perm: Vec<usize> = with_keys.into_iter().map(|(_, i)| i).collect();

        // In-place permutation using a cycle based approach (e.g.
        // https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dsa/permute-the-elements-of-an-array-following-given-order/).
        let mut seen = vec![false; v.len()];
        for i in 0..v.len() {
            if seen[i] {
                continue;
            }
            let mut a = i;
            while !seen[a] {
                seen[a] = true;
                let b = perm[a];
                // Short circuit on the cycle's start index.
                if b == i {
                    break;
                }
                v.swap(a, b);
                a = b;
            }
        }
    }

    // Property: Optimized and reference collectors yield the same
    // `ValueMesh` on complete inputs, even with duplicates.
    //
    // - Begin with a complete set of `(rank, value)` pairs covering
    //   all ranks of the region.
    // - Add extra pairs at arbitrary ranks (up to `extra_len`), which
    //   necessarily duplicate existing entries when `extra_len > 0`.
    // - Shuffle the combined pairs deterministically.
    // - Collect using both the reference (`try_collect_indexed`) and
    //   optimized (`try_collect_indexed_opt`) implementations.
    //
    // Both collectors must succeed and produce identical results.
    // This demonstrates that the optimized version preserves
    // last-write-wins semantics and agrees exactly with the reference
    // behavior.
    proptest! {
        #[test]
        fn try_collect_opt_equivalence(region in gen_region(1..=4, 6), extra_len in 0usize..=12) {
            let n = region.num_ranks();

            // Start with one pair per rank (coverage guaranteed).
            let mut pairs: Vec<(usize, i64)> = (0..n).map(|r| (r, r as i64)).collect();

            // Add some extra duplicates of random in-bounds ranks.
            // Their values differ so last-write-wins is observable.
            let extras = proptest::collection::vec(0..n, extra_len)
                .new_tree(&mut proptest::test_runner::TestRunner::default())
                .unwrap()
                .current();
            for (k, r) in extras.into_iter().enumerate() {
                pairs.push((r, (n as i64) + (k as i64)));
            }

            // Deterministic "shuffle" to fix iteration order across
            // both collectors.
            pseudo_shuffle(&mut pairs, hash_key);

            // Reference vs optimized.
            let mesh_ref = build_value_mesh_indexed(region.clone(), pairs.clone()).unwrap();
            let mesh_opt = pairs.into_iter().collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone()).unwrap();

            prop_assert_eq!(mesh_ref.region(), mesh_opt.region());
            prop_assert_eq!(mesh_ref.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), mesh_opt.values().collect::<Vec<_>>());
        }
    }

    // Property: Optimized and reference collectors report identical
    // errors when ranks are missing.
    //
    // - Begin with a complete set of `(rank, value)` pairs.
    // - Remove one rank so coverage is incomplete.
    // - Shuffle deterministically.
    // - Collect with both implementations.
    //
    // Both must fail with `InvalidRankCardinality` describing the
    // same expected vs. actual counts.
    proptest! {
        #[test]
        fn try_collect_opt_missing_rank_errors_match(region in gen_region(1..=4, 6)) {
            let n = region.num_ranks();
            // Base complete.
            let mut pairs: Vec<(usize, i64)> = (0..n).map(|r| (r, r as i64)).collect();
            // Drop one distinct rank.
            if n > 0 {
                let drop_idx = 0usize; // Deterministic, fine for the property.
                pairs.remove(drop_idx);
            }
            // Shuffle deterministically.
            pseudo_shuffle(&mut pairs, hash_key);

            let ref_err  = build_value_mesh_indexed(region.clone(), pairs.clone()).unwrap_err();
            let opt_err  = pairs.into_iter().collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region).unwrap_err();
            assert_eq!(format!("{ref_err:?}"), format!("{opt_err:?}"));
        }
    }

    // Property: Optimized and reference collectors report identical
    // errors when given out-of-bounds ranks.
    //
    // - Construct a set of `(rank, value)` pairs.
    // - Include at least one pair whose rank is ≥
    //   `region.num_ranks()`.
    // - Shuffle deterministically.
    // - Collect with both implementations.
    //
    // Both must fail with `InvalidRankCardinality`, and the reported
    // error values must match exactly.
    proptest! {
        #[test]
        fn try_collect_opt_out_of_bound_errors_match(region in gen_region(1..=4, 6)) {
            let n = region.num_ranks();
            // One valid, then one out-of-bound.
            let mut pairs = vec![(0usize, 0i64), (n, 123i64)];
            pseudo_shuffle(&mut pairs, hash_key);

            let ref_err = build_value_mesh_indexed(region.clone(), pairs.clone()).unwrap_err();
            let opt_err = pairs.into_iter().collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region).unwrap_err();
            assert_eq!(format!("{ref_err:?}"), format!("{opt_err:?}"));
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn map_into_preserves_region_and_order() {
        let region: Region = extent!(rows = 2, cols = 3).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);

        let doubled: ValueMesh<_> = vm.map_into(|x| x * 2);
        assert_eq!(doubled.region, region);
        assert_eq!(
            doubled.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn map_into_ref_borrows_and_preserves() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 4).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(
            region.clone(),
            vec!["a".to_string(), "b".into(), "c".into(), "d".into()],
        );

        let lens: ValueMesh<_> = vm.map_into(|s| s.len());
        assert_eq!(lens.region, region);
        assert_eq!(lens.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1, 1, 1, 1]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn try_map_into_short_circuits_on_error() {
        let region = extent!(n = 4).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, vec![1, 2, 3, 4]);

        let res: Result<ValueMesh<i32>, &'static str> =
            vm.try_map_into(|x| if x == &3 { Err("boom") } else { Ok(x + 10) });

        assert!(res.is_err());
        assert_eq!(res.unwrap_err(), "boom");
    }

    #[test]
    fn try_map_into_ref_short_circuits_on_error() {
        let region = extent!(n = 4).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region, vec![1, 2, 3, 4]);

        let res: Result<ValueMesh<i32>, &'static str> =
            vm.try_map_into(|x| if x == &3 { Err("boom") } else { Ok(x + 10) });

        assert!(res.is_err());
        assert_eq!(res.unwrap_err(), "boom");
    }

    // -- Helper to poll `core::future::Ready` without a runtime
    fn noop_waker() -> Waker {
        fn clone(_: *const ()) -> RawWaker {
            RawWaker::new(std::ptr::null(), &VTABLE)
        }
        fn wake(_: *const ()) {}
        fn wake_by_ref(_: *const ()) {}
        fn drop(_: *const ()) {}
        static VTABLE: RawWakerVTable = RawWakerVTable::new(clone, wake, wake_by_ref, drop);
        // SAFETY: The raw waker never dereferences its data pointer
        // (`null`), and all vtable fns are no-ops. It's only used to
        // satisfy `Context` for polling already-ready futures in
        // tests.
        unsafe { Waker::from_raw(RawWaker::new(std::ptr::null(), &VTABLE)) }
    }

    fn poll_now<F: Future>(mut fut: F) -> F::Output {
        let waker = noop_waker();
        let mut cx = Context::from_waker(&waker);
        // SAFETY: `fut` is a local stack variable that we never move
        // after pinning, and we only use it to poll immediately
        // within this scope. This satisfies the invariants of
        // `Pin::new_unchecked`.
        let mut fut = unsafe { Pin::new_unchecked(&mut fut) };
        match fut.as_mut().poll(&mut cx) {
            Poll::Ready(v) => v,
            Poll::Pending => unreachable!("Ready futures must complete immediately"),
        }
    }
    // --

    #[test]
    fn map_into_ready_futures() {
        let region: Region = extent!(r = 2, c = 2).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), vec![10, 20, 30, 40]);

        // Map to `core::future::Ready` futures.
        let pending: ValueMesh<core::future::Ready<_>> =
            vm.map_into(|x| core::future::ready(x + 1));
        assert_eq!(pending.region, region);

        // Drive the ready futures without a runtime and collect results.
        let results: Vec<_> = pending.values().map(|f| poll_now(f.clone())).collect();
        assert_eq!(results, vec![11, 21, 31, 41]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn map_into_single_element_mesh() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 1).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), vec![7]);

        let out: ValueMesh<_> = vm.map_into(|x| x * x);
        assert_eq!(out.region, region);
        assert_eq!(out.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![49]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn map_into_ref_with_non_clone_field() {
        // A type that intentionally does NOT implement Clone.
        #[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
        struct NotClone(i32);

        let region: Region = extent!(x = 3).into();
        let values = vec![(10, NotClone(1)), (20, NotClone(2)), (30, NotClone(3))];
        let mesh: ValueMesh<(i32, NotClone)> =
            values.into_iter().collect_mesh(region.clone()).unwrap();

        let projected: ValueMesh<i32> = mesh.map_into(|t| t.0);
        assert_eq!(projected.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![10, 20, 30]);
        assert_eq!(projected.region(), &region);
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_roundtrip_all_equal() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 6).into();
        let mut vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), vec![42; 6]);

        // Compress and ensure logical equality preserved.
        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let collected: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(collected, vec![42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42]);

        // Random access still works.
        for i in 0..region.num_ranks() {
            assert_eq!(vm.get(i), Some(&42));
        }
        assert_eq!(vm.get(region.num_ranks()), None); // out-of-bounds
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_roundtrip_alternating() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 6).into();
        let original = vec![1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2];
        let mut vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), original.clone());

        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let collected: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(collected, original);

        // Spot-check random access after compression.
        assert_eq!(vm.get(0), Some(&1));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(1), Some(&2));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(3), Some(&2));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(5), Some(&2));
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_roundtrip_blocky_and_slice() {
        // Blocks: 0,0,0 | 1,1 | 2,2,2,2 | 3
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 10).into();
        let original = vec![0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3];
        let mut vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), original.clone());

        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let collected: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(collected, original);

        // Slice a middle subregion [3..8) → [1,1,2,2,2]
        let sub_region = region.range("n", 3..8).unwrap();
        let sliced = vm.sliced(sub_region);
        let sliced_vec: Vec<_> = sliced.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(sliced_vec, vec![1, 1, 2, 2, 2]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_idempotent_noop_on_second_call() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 7).into();
        let original = vec![9, 9, 9, 8, 8, 9, 9];
        let mut vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), original.clone());

        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let once: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(once, original);

        // Calling again should be a no-op and still yield identical
        // values.
        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let twice: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(twice, original);
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_works_after_build_indexed() {
        // Build with shuffled pairs, then compress and verify
        // semantics.
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 2, y = 3).into(); // 6
        let pairs = vec![(3, 30), (0, 0), (5, 50), (2, 20), (1, 10), (4, 40)];
        let mut vm = pairs
            .into_iter()
            .collect_indexed::<ValueMesh<_>>(region.clone())
            .unwrap();

        // Should compress to 6 runs of length 1; still must
        // round-trip.
        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let collected: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(collected, vec![0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50]);
        // Spot-check get()
        assert_eq!(vm.get(4), Some(&40));
    }

    #[test]
    fn rle_handles_singleton_mesh() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 1).into();
        let mut vm = ValueMesh::new_unchecked(region.clone(), vec![123]);

        vm.compress_adjacent_in_place();
        let collected: Vec<_> = vm.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(collected, vec![123]);
        assert_eq!(vm.get(0), Some(&123));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(1), None);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_dense_round_trip_json() {
        // Build a simple dense mesh of 5 integers.
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 5).into();
        let dense = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]).unwrap();

        let json = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&dense).unwrap();
        let restored: ValueMesh<i32> = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();

        assert_eq!(dense, restored);

        // Dense meshes should stay dense on the wire: check the
        // tagged variant.
        let v: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
        // enum tag is nested: {"rep": {"Dense":{...}}
        let tag = v.get("rep").and_then(|o| o.get("Dense"));
        assert!(tag.is_some(), "json is {}", json);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_dense_round_trip_bincode() {
        // Build a simple dense mesh of 5 integers.
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 5).into();
        let dense = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]).unwrap();

        let encoded = bincode::serde::encode_to_vec(&dense, bincode::config::legacy()).unwrap();
        let restored: ValueMesh<i32> =
            bincode::serde::decode_from_slice(&encoded, bincode::config::legacy())
                .map(|(v, _)| v)
                .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(dense, restored);
        // Dense meshes should stay dense on the wire.
        assert!(matches!(restored.rep, Rep::Dense { .. }));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_compressed_round_trip_json() {
        // Build a dense mesh, compress it, and verify it stays
        // compressed on the wire.
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 10).into();
        let mut mesh = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3]).unwrap();
        mesh.compress_adjacent_in_place();

        let json = serde_json::to_string_pretty(&mesh).unwrap();
        let restored: ValueMesh<i32> = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();

        // Logical equality preserved.
        assert_eq!(mesh, restored);

        // Compressed meshes should stay compressed on the wire.
        let v: serde_json::Value = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
        // enum tag is nested: {"rep": {"Compressed": {...}}
        let tag = v.get("rep").and_then(|o| o.get("Compressed"));
        assert!(tag.is_some(), "json is {}", json);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_compressed_round_trip_bincode() {
        // Build a dense mesh, compress it, and verify it stays
        // compressed on the wire.
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 10).into();
        let mut mesh = ValueMesh::new(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3]).unwrap();
        mesh.compress_adjacent_in_place();

        let encoded = bincode::serde::encode_to_vec(&mesh, bincode::config::legacy()).unwrap();
        let restored: ValueMesh<i32> =
            bincode::serde::decode_from_slice(&encoded, bincode::config::legacy())
                .map(|(v, _)| v)
                .unwrap();

        // Logical equality preserved.
        assert_eq!(mesh, restored);
        // Compressed meshes should stay compressed on the wire.
        assert!(matches!(restored.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_stable_run_encoding() {
        let run = Run::new(0, 10, 42);
        let json = serde_json::to_string(&run).unwrap();
        let decoded: Run = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();

        assert_eq!(run, decoded);
        assert_eq!(run.start, 0);
        assert_eq!(run.end, 10);
        assert_eq!(run.id, 42);

        // Ensure conversion back to Range<usize> works.
        let (range, id): (Range<usize>, u32) = run.try_into().unwrap();
        assert_eq!(range, 0..10);
        assert_eq!(id, 42);
    }

    #[test]
    fn from_single_builds_single_run() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 6).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::from_single(region.clone(), 7);

        assert_eq!(vm.region(), &region);
        assert_eq!(vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7]);
        assert_eq!(vm.get(0), Some(&7));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(5), Some(&7));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(6), None);
    }

    #[test]
    fn from_default_builds_with_default_value() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 6).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::<i32>::from_default(region.clone());

        assert_eq!(vm.region(), &region);
        // i32::default() == 0
        assert_eq!(vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]);
        assert_eq!(vm.get(0), Some(&0));
        assert_eq!(vm.get(5), Some(&0));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_default_vs_single_equivalence() {
        let region: Region = extent!(x = 4).into();
        let d1 = ValueMesh::<i32>::from_default(region.clone());
        let d2 = ValueMesh::from_single(region.clone(), 0);
        assert_eq!(d1, d2);
    }

    #[test]
    fn build_from_ranges_with_default_basic() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 10).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::from_ranges_with_default(
            region.clone(),
            0, // default
            vec![(2..4, 1), (6..9, 2)],
        )
        .unwrap();

        assert_eq!(vm.region(), &region);
        assert_eq!(
            vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0]
        );

        // Internal shape: [0..2)->0, [2..4)->1, [4..6)->0, [6..9)->2,
        // [9..10)->0
        if let Rep::Compressed { table, runs } = &vm.rep {
            // Table is small and de-duplicated.
            assert!(table.len() <= 3);
            assert_eq!(runs.len(), 5);
        } else {
            panic!("expected compressed");
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn build_from_ranges_with_default_edge_cases() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 5).into();

        // Full override covers entire region.
        let vm = ValueMesh::from_ranges_with_default(region.clone(), 9, vec![(0..5, 3)]).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![3, 3, 3, 3, 3]);

        // Adjacent overrides and default gaps.
        let vm = ValueMesh::from_ranges_with_default(region.clone(), 0, vec![(1..2, 7), (2..4, 7)])
            .unwrap();
        assert_eq!(vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![0, 7, 7, 7, 0]);

        // Empty region.
        let empty_region: Region = extent!(n = 0).into();
        let vm = ValueMesh::from_ranges_with_default(empty_region.clone(), 42, vec![]).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(vm.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), Vec::<i32>::new());
    }

    #[test]
    fn from_dense_builds_and_compresses() {
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 6).into();
        let mesh = ValueMesh::from_dense(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3]).unwrap();

        assert_eq!(mesh.region(), &region);
        assert!(matches!(mesh.rep, Rep::Compressed { .. }));
        assert_eq!(mesh.values().collect::<Vec<_>>(), vec![1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3]);

        // Spot-check indexing.
        assert_eq!(mesh.get(0), Some(&1));
        assert_eq!(mesh.get(3), Some(&2));
        assert_eq!(mesh.get(5), Some(&3));
    }

    #[test]
    fn merge_from_overlay_basic() {
        // Base mesh with two contiguous runs.
        let region: Region = extent!(n = 8).into();
        let mut mesh = ValueMesh::from_dense(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3]).unwrap();

        // Overlay replaces middle segment [2..6) with 9s.
        let overlay = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(2..6, 9)]).unwrap();

        mesh.merge_from_overlay(overlay).unwrap();

        // Materialize back into ranges to inspect.
        let out = mesh.materialized_runs();

        // Expected: left prefix (0..2)=1, replaced middle (2..6)=9, tail (6..8)=3.
        assert_eq!(out, vec![(0..2, 1), (2..6, 9), (6..8, 3)]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn merge_from_overlay_multiple_spans() {
        // Build mesh with alternating runs.
        let region: Region = extent!(m = 12).into();
        let mut mesh =
            ValueMesh::from_dense(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4])
                .unwrap();

        // Overlay has a run that spans across the boundary of two
        // left runs and another disjoint run later.
        let overlay = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(2..6, 9), (9..11, 8)]).unwrap();

        mesh.merge_from_overlay(overlay).unwrap();
        let out = mesh.materialized_runs();

        // Expected after merge and re-compression:
        // (0..2,1) untouched
        // (2..6,9) overwrite of part of [1,2] runs
        // (6..9,3) left tail survives
        // (9..11,8) overwrite inside [4] run
        // (11..12,4) leftover tail
        assert_eq!(
            out,
            vec![(0..2, 1), (2..6, 9), (6..9, 3), (9..11, 8), (11..12, 4)]
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn merge_from_overlay_crosses_row_boundary() {
        // 2 x 5 region -> 10 linear ranks in row-major order.
        let region: Region = extent!(rows = 2, cols = 5).into();

        // Dense values laid out row-major:
        // row 0: [1, 1, 1, 2, 2]
        // row 1: [3, 3, 4, 4, 4]
        let mut mesh =
            ValueMesh::from_dense(region.clone(), vec![1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4]).unwrap();

        // Overlay that crosses the row boundary:
        // linear ranks [3..7) -> 9
        //   - tail of row 0: indices 3,4 (the two 2s)
        //   - head of row 1: indices 5,6 (the two 3s)
        let overlay = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(3..7, 9)]).unwrap();

        mesh.merge_from_overlay(overlay).unwrap();

        // After merge, the dense view should be:
        // [1,1,1, 9,9, 9,9, 4,4,4]
        let flat: Vec<_> = mesh.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(flat, vec![1, 1, 1, 9, 9, 9, 9, 4, 4, 4]);

        // And the materialized runs should reflect that:
        // (0..3,1) | (3..7,9) | (7..10,4)
        let runs = mesh.materialized_runs();
        assert_eq!(runs, vec![(0..3, 1), (3..7, 9), (7..10, 4)]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn accumulator_initializes_and_merges_overlays() {
        /// Simple three-variant enum local to tests, avoiding a
        /// cross-module dependency on `crate::resource::Status`.
        #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize, Named)]
        enum Val {
            Init,
            Running,
            Stopped,
        }

        let region: Region = extent!(m = 8).into();
        let template = ValueMesh::from_single(region.clone(), Val::Init);

        // State starts empty (default).
        let mut state = ValueMesh::<Val>::default();
        assert_eq!(state.region().num_ranks(), 0);

        // First accumulate: state should be cloned from template.
        let overlay1 = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(2..5, Val::Running)]).unwrap();
        template.accumulate(&mut state, overlay1).unwrap();

        // State now has the full region, with ranks 2..5 set to Running.
        assert_eq!(state.region().num_ranks(), 8);
        let vals: Vec<_> = state.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(
            vals,
            vec![
                Val::Init,
                Val::Init,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Init,
                Val::Init,
                Val::Init,
            ]
        );

        // Second accumulate: overlay a different subrange with Stopped.
        let overlay2 = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(5..7, Val::Stopped)]).unwrap();
        template.accumulate(&mut state, overlay2).unwrap();

        let vals: Vec<_> = state.values().collect();
        assert_eq!(
            vals,
            vec![
                Val::Init,
                Val::Init,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Running,
                Val::Stopped,
                Val::Stopped,
                Val::Init,
            ]
        );

        // reducer_spec should return Some with the correct typehash.
        let spec = template
            .reducer_spec()
            .expect("reducer_spec should be Some");
        assert_eq!(
            spec.typehash,
            <ValueOverlayReducer<Val> as Named>::typehash()
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn value_overlay_reducer_merges_with_right_wins() {
        /// Simple three-variant enum local to tests, avoiding a
        /// cross-module dependency on `crate::resource::Status`.
        #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Serialize, Deserialize, Named)]
        enum Val {
            Init,
            Running,
            Stopped,
        }

        let reducer = ValueOverlayReducer::<Val>(PhantomData);

        // Left overlay: ranks 0..4 = Running, 6..8 = Stopped
        let left =
            ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(0..4, Val::Running), (6..8, Val::Stopped)]).unwrap();

        // Right overlay: ranks 2..6 = Init
        // Overlaps with left on 2..4 (should overwrite Running).
        let right = ValueOverlay::try_from_runs(vec![(2..6, Val::Init)]).unwrap();

        let merged = reducer.reduce(left, right).unwrap();
        let runs: Vec<_> = merged.runs().cloned().collect();

        // Expected (right wins on overlap):
        // 0..2 Running (from left, no overlap)
        // 2..6 Init (from right, overwrites left 2..4)
        // 6..8 Stopped (from left, no overlap)
        assert_eq!(
            runs,
            vec![
                (0..2, Val::Running),
                (2..6, Val::Init),
                (6..8, Val::Stopped),
            ]
        );
    }
}